The Ark of the Covenant: Its Construction, Purpose & Disappearance

The ark of the covenant is one of the most important items signifying YHWH’s presence in the Old Testament—but it is also one of the most mysterious. Since the ark of the covenant was kept in the innermost part of the tabernacle and the temple, it naturally makes readers curious about what it would have looked like. In addition, it was powerful and dangerous: People who treated the ark inappropriately died.

But the ark of the covenant disappeared near the end of the Old Testament. How could something so important and powerful vanish? From mainstream media like the Indiana Jones series to speculative YouTube videos, the destiny and significance of the ark of the covenant remains of interest even in a secular age.

The main idea of the ark of the covenant was YHWH’s presence with his people. This presence traveled with the people in the wilderness but was primarily centered in the tabernacle and temple. Because it contained the Ten Words (Ten Commandments), it was a visible sign of the covenant YHWH made with his people. However, like YHWH himself, it was dangerous for those who did not treat YHWH with respect.

The architecture of the ark

The main text about the construction of the ark of the covenant is in the book of Exodus, which includes both the command to make the ark of the covenant (Exod 25:10–22), as well as the description of Bezalel making the ark (Exod 37:1–9). Two later accounts present slightly different perspectives on the ark (Deut 10:1–5; 1 Kgs 6:19; 8:1–9).

The Hebrew word used to describe the ark (ארון) is used to refer to only two other items in the Old Testament: a coffin (Gen 50:26) and a chest to hold money (2 Kgs 12:10–11). The lexical information we have, then, leads us to expect a basic box structure for the ark of the covenant.

This has led to the English translation “ark”—which simply meant “box” or “chest” in older forms of English. While it would be hard to overcome convention, it might be better to translate this as “the box of the covenant” or the “covenantal box,” since the word “ark” mainly appears in religious contexts today. “Ark of the covenant” meant to earlier English speakers what “box of the covenant” would mean to us today.

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Ark construction in Exodus

The exact dimensions of the ark were “two and a half cubits in length, one and a half cubits in width, and one and a half cubits in height” (Exod 25:10). Since a cubit was about eighteen inches, the ark would have been about 3.5 feet in length, 2.25 feet in width, and 2.25 feet in height.¹

God’s instructions also call for the ark to be made from acacia wood (Exod 25:10). Acacia wood was among the offerings given to construct the tabernacle (Exod 25:50), and other parts of the tabernacle were also made of acacia wood (Exod 25:23; 26:15; 27:1; 30:1). Acacia wood was a natural choice not only because it was abundant in the Sinai Peninsula, but because much Egyptian furniture was built out of it.²

The craftsmen were to cover the ark with gold on both the outside and inside, as well as put a golden rim or molding around it (25:11). Overlaying precious items with gold was common for Egyptians.³

In addition, the Israelite craftsmen were to make four golden rings that went on the feet of the ark, two on each side (25:12). The rings held two poles made of acacia wood that were covered with gold and designed to remain permanently within the rings of the ark to enable worshipers of YHWH to carry it (25:13–15). If we may judge by possible Egyptian parallels, these rings were most likely underneath the ark, so that the weight of the ark pressed down on the poles.⁴ However, God’s command to permanently attach the poles contrasts with the instructions in Numbers 4:6 that the priests were to insert the poles into the ark when it moved. One possibility is that the poles might have been retractable, and the priests simply extended the poles when moving the ark.⁵

The craftsmen then made a כַפֹּרֶת for the ark. This word is usually translated “mercy seat” or “atonement cover,” because the related verb כפר often refers to atonement (Exod 21:30; Lev 1:4). However, in this text it primarily refers to a cover for the ark. The cover was to be overlaid with gold and was the same size as the ark: two and a half cubits in length and one and a half cubits in width (Exod 25:17).

On top of the seat, the craftsmen were to put two cherubim, one on each end facing the other with their wings overshadowing the ark. The cherubim were not to be placed on the cover but connected to the cover (Exod 25:18–21). Since the text provides few details about their appearance, as far back as Josephus it has been unclear what these cherubim looked like (Ant. 8.73). Most of the cases where cherubim appear in the Old Testament are in relation to the ark of the covenant. Outside of the ark, cherubim appear in the garden of Eden (Gen 3:24), as a mount for YHWH (Ps 18:10), in Ezekiel’s vision of YHWH leaving the temple (Ezek 9–11), as a descriptor for the king of Tyre to mark his presence in the garden of Eden (Ezek 28:14, 16), and in Ezekiel’s vision of the temple (Ezek 41:18–25). Biblical descriptions of their appearance vary, but wings are a common element. These cherubim might be human winged forms.⁶ However, based on ancient Near Eastern parallels, these cherubim might also be winged sphinxes: human-headed winged lions. This parallel is supported by the frequent connection of sphinxes with thrones.⁷

Ark construction in Deuteronomy

The account of the construction of the ark in Deuteronomy 10:1–8 is somewhat different from the one in Exodus: YHWH commanded Moses to make the ark to bring it up the mountain to hold the second copy of the Ten Words that YHWH would write. No mention is made of the cherubim or other ritual functions. It is possible that the differences are significant enough that this is meant to describe a different and temporary ark that played no ritual role.⁸ However, it is more likely that Deuteronomy is merely focusing on the most relevant part of the ark for the context of Deuteronomy: Its role as a holder of the Ten Words.⁹ In addition, Deuteronomy 10:8 also says that the Levites were to carry the ark to stand before YHWH, which indicates that the ark was a symbol of divine presence.¹⁰ Just as when 1 Kings records that Solomon built the temple (1 Kgs 6:2), the statement that Moses built the ark most likely refers to his coordinating and authorizing the building rather than making it himself, which would harmonize with the account in Exodus that Bezalel built the ark.¹¹

Visualize the different elements of the tabernacle, include the Ark of the Covenant, using Logos’s infographics.

Ark construction in 1 Kings

The ark as described in 1 Kings is very similar to the ark in Exodus. As in the tabernacle, the ark was placed in the temple’s Holy of Holies (1 Kgs 6:19). Unlike in Deuteronomy, the cherubim play a central role in this account (1 Kgs 8:6–7). One additional detail in the 1 Kings account is that when Solomon put the ark into the temple, the poles were so long that they were visible from the Holy Place, but were not visible from outside the temple (1 Kgs 8:8). Solomon also made additional cherubim for the Holy of Holies that were much larger than those on the ark (1 Kgs 6:23–28).

Ark construction in Ancient Near Eastern context

Scholars have speculated that the ark might have been inspired by a variety of sources. The most likely sources are Egyptian, as the ark looks similar to the sacred boats (sometimes called barques) in Egypt. These barques often had poles and were carried in religious ceremonies. However, if the biblical ark was indebted to this source, then the boat theme has been removed entirely.¹² The ark also looks very similar to moveable shrines from Egypt, such as a box with poles that carried an image of Anubis and was found in the famous tomb of Tutankhamun.¹³

The content of the ark of the covenant

The Exodus account says that “the testimony” was to be put into the ark, and that “testimony” is later revealed to be the Ten Words (25:16, 21; 31:18). The author of Hebrews (13:4) clarifies that the ark contained, along with the Ten Words, some manna and also Aaron’s staff that budded (13:4). The source of this tradition is that YHWH commanded Moses to have Aaron put some manna before “the testimony” (Exod 16:34). Since this word is consistently used to describe the ark—“the ark of the testimony”—it is most likely referring to the ark. Aaron’s staff that budded was also commanded to be placed before the testimony (Num 17:10). Since the reference to the ark in 1 Kings says that only the Ten Words were in the ark (1 Kgs 8:9), perhaps the other two items had been removed by the time the ark came to the temple.¹⁴

The ark’s story across Scripture

Besides the indirect reference to the ark in the manna account (Exod 16:34), the first reference to the ark in the Bible is the detailed instructions on how to construct it (Exod 25:10–22). The ark was to be placed inside the Holy of Holies, screened by the curtain (Exod 26:33; 40:3, 21), and anointed (Exod 30:26). YHWH appointed Bezalel and Oholiab to oversee the construction of the sacred items, including the ark (Exod 31:7; 35:12; 37:1–9).

YHWH warned Moses not to allow Aaron to approach the ark of the covenant except on the Day of Atonement (Lev 16:2). On that day, the incense would cover the cherubim so that the high priest would not die (Lev 16:13). As part of the ritual of the Day of Atonement, the high priest would sprinkle blood from the sacrifice of a bull and a goat on the mercy seat, the cover of the ark of the covenant (Lev 16:14–15).

The descendants of Kohath were to guard all the furniture of the tabernacle, including the ark (Num 3:27–32). When Israel moved in the wilderness, Aaron and his sons were to cover the ark with the veil of the screen, a covering of goatskin, and a blue cloth (Num 4:5–6). The ark led them in the wilderness to bring them to a place where they could rest (Num 10:33). After YHWH condemned Israel to wander in the wilderness for forty years, the people rebelled against this command by attacking Canaan. However, Moses and the ark remained in the camp, signifying the lack of divine support for this attack (Num 14:44).

In Canaan, the ark played a central role in the crossing of the Jordan River, as the river was blocked as soon as the feet of the priests carrying the ark were standing in the river. The priests then stayed there until all the people had passed, at which point the priests left the riverbed and the water returned to normal (Josh 3–4). Likewise, the ark played a prominent role in the conquest of Jericho, as the priests carrying the ark led the people as they circled the city (Josh 6). After the defeat at Ai, Joshua tore his clothes and fell on the ground in front of the ark until evening, when YHWH spoke to him (Josh 7:6). When the people shouted the blessings and curses to each other on Mount Gerizim and Mount Ebal, the ark of the covenant was centered between them (Josh 8:33).

During the time of the judges, the ark was at Bethel and available for the Israelites to approach and inquire of God (Judg 20:27). Later, the ark was at Shiloh when Samuel was living there (1 Sam 3:3).

The ark played a central role in Israel’s war with the Philistines. After a defeat at the hands of the Philistines, the Israelites decided to take the ark with them into battle. However, they were defeated, and the Philistines captured the ark (1 Sam 4). The ark then began a journey through Philistine territory, where both the Philistine deity’s image and the Philistines themselves suffered harm because of the presence of the ark, until eventually the Philistines decided to send it back to Israel. The ark returned to Beth Shemesh, where many Israelites died when they looked at the ark. After this, the ark went to the house of Abinadab in Kiriath-jearim for twenty years (1 Sam 5:1–7:2).

When David decided to bring the ark to Jerusalem, the Israelites made a new cart and brought it from the house of Abinadab towards Jerusalem. Uzzah and Ahio, the sons of Abinadab, led the cart. However, when the oxen stumbled and Uzzah steadied the ark with his hand, YHWH struck him dead (2 Sam 6:1–7). Most likely the reasons for this judgment were twofold:

1. Uzzah was not a priest, as Josephus noted (Ant. 7.81).
2. Uzzah and Ahio were not following the proper protocol for carrying the ark with poles.

The ark then stayed at the home of Obed-Edom the Gittite for three months (2 Sam 6:11). Seeing the blessing given to Obed-Edom, David decided to return the ark to Jerusalem. He arranged for extensive sacrifices and he himself danced for joy along the way (this incurred the scorn of his wife Michal). The ark was then placed in a tent in Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:12–22).

In the parallel account in Chronicles, David says that only the Levites were permitted to carry the ark (1 Chr 15:2), and that the Levites correctly carried the ark on their shoulders with the poles, following Moses’s commands (1 Chr 15:15).

Afterwards, the ark stayed in a tent in Jerusalem (2 Sam 11:11), even when David fled Jerusalem (2 Sam 15:24–29). Solomon designed the inner sanctuary of the temple to hold the ark (2 Kgs 6:19), and the ark was moved by priests to the temple accompanied by a very large number of sacrifices (2 Kgs 8:1–9).

The ark is not mentioned again in the historical books until a final reference from the time of Josiah, who commanded the Levites to put the ark into the temple and not carry it on their shoulders (2 Chr 35:3). This command not to carry the ark perhaps implies that the ark had been on the move before this, perhaps because of an idolatrous practice.

Outside the Pentateuch and the historical books, the ark appears only twice in the Old Testament. First, a psalmist draws on Solomon’s prayer of temple dedication (2 Chr 6:41) and calls on YHWH to “arise to your rest, you and the ark of your strength” (Ps 132:8). Second, in Jeremiah’s vision of a glorious future he says,

They will no longer say “the ark of the covenant of YHWH,” and it shall not come to their mind, and they will not remember it, and they will not long for it, and it shall not be made again. (Jer 3:16)

The significance & functions of the ark of the covenant

The significance of the ark of the covenant centers on the divine presence of YHWH with his people, Israel. Coming after the making of the covenant with the people at Sinai, the ark demonstrated the reality of YHWH’s dedication to Israel. However, how that divine presence functions depends on the text. There are at least four functions given for the ark in Scripture.

1. Communication with God

One function of the ark was communication with God. After detailing how to construct the ark, Exodus lays out clearly what one of the purposes of the ark was to be:

And I will keep my appointment with you there and I will speak with you from above the cover, from between the two cherubim which are above the ark of the testimony. (Exod 25:22)

Moses heard God speaking to him from between the cherubim (Num 7:89). YHWH guided Israel in the wilderness through the ark, instructing the people where to go (Num 10:33–36). Likewise, Joshua fell prostrate before the ark and YHWH spoke to him there (Josh 7:6–15). YHWH provided an oracle to Israel from the ark during the time of the judges (Judg 20:27–28). According to Chronicles, the priests spoke to YHWH before the ark, offering praise and thanks to the God of Israel (1 Chr 16:4–6, 37). Perhaps many of the references in the Old Testament to people coming “before YHWH” to speak with YHWH would mean that the person came before the ark of the covenant (Josh 18:6; 1 Sam 12:7).

2. Connection to powerful divine actions

Second, the divine presence in the ark was connected to powerful actions.

This is reflected most clearly in the martial prayer of Moses that YHWH would defeat their enemies when the ark was set out (Num 10:35). The lack of the presence of the ark in the attack on Canaan symbolized YHWH’s absence and led to defeat (Num 14:44). The presence of the ark at the Jordan River caused it to stop flowing (Josh 3–4). Likewise, the ark in the circular journeys around Jericho indicated YHWH’s hand in the assault (Josh 6). Although the presence of the ark in the battle against the Philistines did not bring victory to Israel, YHWH was careful to demonstrate that he was not defeated as the ark brought calamity on the Philistines wherever it went, until the Philistines sent it back to Israel (1 Sam 4–6). When it was returned to Israel, the ark brought judgment to those even within Israel who treated it lightly (1 Sam 6:13–21; 2 Sam 6:1–9), but it brought blessing to those who honored it (2 Sam 6:10–11). A laconic reference to the ark might indicate the use of the ark in battle by Saul (1 Sam 14:18–19). The presence of the manna and Aaron’s staff that budded inside the ark reminded Israel both of YHWH’s care for them in the past and of his judgement of Israelite evildoers.

3. Emphasizing the exclusivity of the divine presence

Third, some texts emphasize the exclusive nature of the divine presence manifested in the ark of the covenant. Solomon says that the places where the ark went were holy, so the daughter of Pharaoh could not live in Jerusalem (2 Chr 8:11). In both the tabernacle and the temple, the ark of the covenant was in the innermost part of the sacred structure where no one except the high priest could go (and that only once a year). It is possible that the cherubim on the ark were meant to be a throne for YHWH, since a few texts describe YHWH “sitting on the cherubim” (1 Sam 4:4; 6:2). However, while a throne understanding of the cherubim is possible, the ark is not called a throne. The references to YHWH sitting on the cherubim could also be translated as “dwelling among the cherubim,” and they may refer to the cherubim around the divine throne in heaven rather than the cherubim on the ark (which would be designed to call to mind the cherubim at the divine throne).¹⁵ It is also possible that the ark was to be viewed as the footstool of YHWH, with the throne of YHWH in heaven (1 Chr 28:2), but that connection is not made clearly.

Most likely, the divine presence associated with the ark of the covenant should not be too much narrowed, as that could make the ark too similar to a divine image. Since divine images were banned in ancient Israel and the ark occupied the space in the temple that a divine image would normally have occupied, YHWH carefully leaves vague how exactly his presence was manifested in the ark. Following the role of cherubim elsewhere in the Old Testament and similar beings in the ancient Near East, rather than a throne they are most likely protective beings guarding the presence of YHWH.¹⁶

4. Providing a place of atonement

Fourth, the ark of the covenant as a place of atonement is suggested by the usual translation of the כפרת of the ark as the “mercy seat” or “atonement cover,” and the detail that the high priest would sprinkle blood from the sacrifice of a bull and a goat on the mercy seat during the rituals of the Day of Atonement (Lev 16:14–15). However, this is not a primary theme connected to the ark of the covenant in the Old Testament.

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The names of the ark of the covenant

The ark goes by several different names in the Bible.

1. “The ark of the covenant”

The most common for it in English today is “the ark of the covenant,” which appears almost a hundred times in the Old Testament. This name first appears in Numbers 10:33 as Israel sets out from Mount Sinai to travel in the wilderness, and is the name frequently used in Deuteronomy and the historical books. The focus of this name is on the divine presence of YHWH with Israel as expressed in the covenant God had made with them.

2. “The ark of the testimony”

“The ark of the testimony” is the most common name for the ark in Exodus and in the early chapters of Numbers. However, the Hebrew word commonly translated “testimony” in these texts is more likely connected to the idea of covenant, based on both how the word is used in the Old Testament and Akkadian and Aramaic cognates that mean covenant.¹⁷ Therefore, this name for the ark of the covenant means the same thing as “the ark of the covenant.”

3. “The ark of YHWH”/“The ark of God”

The names “the ark of YHWH” and “the ark of God” are commonly used in the historical books and highlight the divine presence of YHWH with the ark.

4. “The ark of the God of Israel”

The reference to the ark as “the ark of the God of Israel” is only used by the Philistines to describe the ark.

The reception history of the ark in the New Testament and elsewhere

The New Testament contains two references to the ark of the covenant.

First, the author of Hebrews surveys the various parts of the temple, including the ark of the covenant in the Holy of Holies—noting that it contained manna, Aaron’s staff that budded, and the Ten Words (13:4).

Second, John sees the temple in heaven opened and the ark of the covenant within that temple (Rev 11:19). The presence of the ark is surprising here, but perhaps the mysterious disappearance of the ark in the Old Testament led to its continued symbolism for the presence of God in the heavenly temple. Its function here is in the context of powerful actions of God, similar to the ark in the Old Testament.

In Jewish tradition, synagogues have Torah arks where the Torah scrolls are kept. Most likely, these arks have their origin in imitating the ark of the covenant, which also had a sacred text inside it.¹⁸

In medieval Christian traditions, the ark symbolized various things, including the womb of Mary (which held the divine presence), Christ’s body as the divine presence, or the church as a whole.¹⁹

The destiny of the ark of the covenant

The final destiny of the ark of the covenant is unknown and remains one of the great mysteries of the Old Testament.²⁰ A number of theories exist.

The film Raiders of the Lost Ark (1981) says that the Egyptian Pharaoh Shishak took it to Egypt when he plundered Jerusalem and took “the treasures of the house of YHWH” (1 Kgs 14:25–26), but this does not fit with the later presence of the ark in Jerusalem during the time of Josiah.

Two medieval traditions about the destiny of the ark remain popular today, though both are highly improbable. The most prominent is that the ark was taken to Ethiopia by the son of Solomon and the queen of Sheba, where a church claims to possess the ark today. However, no ancient evidence exists for this tradition, and it does not account for the presence of the ark in Jerusalem during the time of Josiah.²¹ Another tradition suggests that the ark was taken by the Romans after the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE and taken to Rome, where it was placed in Saint John Lateran’s Basilica. However, no evidence exists that the ark of the covenant was in the temple after the return from exile, and the Arch of Titus showing the plunder from the temple does not depict the ark of the covenant.²²

So what happened to the ark? We simply do not know. The last reference to the presence of the ark is in the time of Josiah, who reigned from 640 to 609 BCE (2 Chr 35:3). The disappearance of the ark might already be referred to by Jeremiah, who says that the ark of the covenant will not be made again (Jer 3:16).

One Jewish tradition says that Josiah hid the ark before the Babylonian conquest, but the account of Josiah’s life in the Old Testament makes it unlikely that he was expecting a complete defeat at the hands of the Babylonians.²³ When the Babylonians conquered Jerusalem, Jeremiah lists many items that they took (Jer 52:17–23). The ark of the covenant was not among these items, which might imply that it had already been removed from Jerusalem before this event. Another tradition says that Jeremiah took the tent, the ark, and the incense altar to Mount Nebo and hid them there in a cave. When others tried to find the place, he rebuked them and said that God would reveal the place when his people were gathered in the future (2 Macc 2:1–8). Another early tradition recounts that the Babylonians plundered the ark when they conquered Jerusalem (2 Esd 10:22).

For reasons of his own, God has not deemed it significant for his followers today to know the destiny of this significant Old Testament artifact.

Charlie Trimm’s recommended resources on the ark of the covenant

• Day, John. “Whatever Happened to the Ark of the Covenant?” In John Day, ed., Temple and Worship in Biblical Israel. LHB/OTS 422. T&T Clark, 2005.
• Eichler, Raanan. The Ark and the Cherubim. FAT 146. Mohr Siebeck, 2021.
• McGeough, Kevin M. Readers of the Lost Ark: Imagining the Ark of the Covenant from Ancient Times to the Present. Oxford University Press, 2025.

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• Heaven Invades Earth: Understanding the Symbolism & Purpose of the Tabernacle
• Why the Ark of the Covenant Will Never Be Found
• The Christological Character of Typological Reading
• The Incarnation in the Bible: God’s True Tabernacle